Thirty examples of Indigenous Brilliance as Keystone Species
Indigenous Spiritualities Birth Technologies Necessary For Survival of Multiple Species
Maori Village, New Zealand (Photo by Connor Gan)
Indigenous ecological wisdom is crucial for survival of all humanity in these times of polycrisis (see a scientific note here). An Indigenous elder’s ecological brilliance is deeply intertwined with their spirituality which is rooted in a worldview where everything—plants, animals, insects, rivers, mountains, trees, and soil—is alive, sentient, intelligent, and interconnected. This holistic worldview emphasizes reciprocal relationships rather than domination, enabling communication with the natural world.
Indigenous communities, at just 5% of the global population, safeguard majority of world’s biodiversity and over a third of irreplaceable forest carbon. Indigenous stewardship is rooted in Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), a “living” whole-systems approach across socio-cultural-economic realms. The urgency is paramount as Indigenous elders, the custodians of indigenous wisdom and TEK, age.
(I use the word “Indigenous” here to mean “Original Stewards” of any part of the world who had deep reciprocal relationships with their local ecosystems. I understand that some tribes in the U.S. and Canada prefer to use the phrase “Tribal Nations” or “First Nations”.)
Below is curated list of over 30 examples of Indigenous tribes acting as brilliant keystone species, the region where they were/are active, their roles in protecting or managing their ecosystem and inhabiting species, and the spiritual practices or rituals they use to connect with the land, spirits, or other species. These examples highlight how empowered Indigenous communities actively stewarded ecosystems, fostering biodiversity and creating sustainable environments. Their roles as keystone species extends way beyond human subsistence or human survival, ensuring wellbeing of myriad life forms.
This is a work in progress: I keep adding/correcting details as I learn more about each tribe.
Please do not use this list for your personal gain especially without directing resources to Indigenous communities and people trying to protect traditional ways of life. We must empower indigenous communities by giving them land, resources and support for transmitting TEK to those who can leverage it: indigenous young adults and mainstream scientist-allies.
San People (Kalahari Desert)
Keystone Species Role: Managed scarce water resources for wildlife and plants. Among the oldest cultures on Earth.
Species Protected: Antelope, ostriches, and desert flora.
Spiritual Practices: Waterhole ceremonies, involving dances and chants, reinforced the sacredness of water. San shamans enter a trance and go into the spirit world to bring rain.
Amazon Basin Indigenous Peoples (Amazon Rainforest)
Keystone Species Role: Created extremely fertile black soil called terra preta and then cultivated and managed diverse food forests to enhance food availability and biodiversity across millions of acres.
Species Protected: Jaguars, toucans, monkeys, and countless plant, bird and insect species.
Spiritual Practices: Viewed the rainforest as a living entity, with spirits residing in plants and trees. This spiritual communication guided their cultivation of the land to align with the rainforest’s rhythms, creating abundance without exploitation. Rituals included offerings and chants to the spirits of the rainforest, seeking their guidance and blessing for harmonious living.
Sacred Groves (India - Bhil and many others)
Keystone Species Role: Sacred groves were conserved as ecological sanctuaries where human activity was limited to rituals and offerings. These prrotected sacred forests served as biodiversity hotspots.
Species Protected: Tigers, elephants, medicinal plants, Birds, snakes, and diverse forest flora.
Spiritual Practices: Sacred groves were seen as abodes of deities and spirits. Tribes refrained from disturbing these ecosystems, considering them sacred offerings to the spirits of the forest with annual festivals, rituals and taboos ensuring the sanctity and biodiversity of these areas.
Moken Sea Nomads (Burma/Thailand, Southeast Asia)
Keystone Species Role: Nomadic Moken are expert divers who can hold their breath for upto 4 minutes and dive to depths >30 meters. Practice sustainable fishing to protect coral reefs. Moken children, are able to see underwater while freediving to collect clams, sea cucumbers, and more.
Species Protected: Fish, sea turtles, and coral ecosystems.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals include chants and meditation to communicate with the spirits of the sea. They worship ancestors. Strong belief that natural resources cannot be owned individually: the entire community has access to them without restrictions.
Kayapo Tribe (Brazil)
Keystone Species Role: Created forest islands (apêtê) in savannas by mixing termite and ant nests with mulch, promoting biodiversity in monoculture-dominated areas. They recognize at least 56 species of stingless bees, which highly correlate with scientific classifications.
Species Protected: Birds, insects, and mammals dependent on these forest islands.
Spiritual Practices: Ceremonial dances and storytelling honored the spirits of the land. They believe their ancestors learned how to live communally from social insects such as bees.
Pacific Northwest Tribes (North America)
Keystone Species Role: Managed salmon populations sustainably, ensuring nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. Salmon carcasses provide critical nutrients for trees like Sitka spruce. Also created clam gardens
Species Protected: Salmon, bears, eagles, and Sitka spruce trees.
Spiritual Practices: Salmon feasts and first-salmon ceremonies expressed gratitude to the spirit of the fish and ensured respectful harvesting. Considered clams and marine ecosystems as gifts from the ocean’s spirit. Their sustainable management honored this relationship, ensuring abundance for future generations.
Hawaiian Indigenous Communities
Keystone Species Role: Maintained loko i‘a fishponds and local watersheds, balancing fish populations and coastal ecosystems, using natural tidal flows.
Species Protected: Herbivorous fish like mullet, mangroves, seabirds, and aquatic plants.
Spiritual Practices: Loko i‘a were imbued with spiritual practices, including regular prayers and chants to Kanaloa, the god of the sea. Fishponds were maintained in ways that respected and worked with marine spirits.
Australian Aboriginal Peoples
Keystone Species Role: Used controlled burns to create mosaic landscapes, preventing wildfires and promoting regeneration. Fire-stick farming supported food webs at multiple levels.
Species Protected: Kangaroos, emus, lizards, and fire-adapted plants like banksia.
Spiritual Practices: Fire itself is seen as a gift from ancestral spirits or a Spirit and Deity in itself. Aboriginal fire practices were rituals to cleanse the land and invite regeneration, guided by their relationship with the spirit of the landscape. Fire-lighting rituals, accompanied by songs and dances, communicated with ancestral spirits to guide the land’s renewal.
Maasai Pastoralists (East Africa)
Keystone Species Role: Practiced rotational grazing, preventing overgrazing and supporting grassland ecosystems (savannas).
Species Protected: Lions, zebras, wildebeests, and diverse grassland species including predators.
Spiritual Practices: Ritual blessings of cattle and grazing lands were performed by spiritual leaders to maintain balance and supporting migratory and resident wildlife.
Ojibwe (North America)
Keystone Species Role: Harvested wild rice sustainably, maintaining healthy wetlands which remain productive for both humans and wildlife.
Species Protected: Ducks, geese, and fish populations dependent on rice beds.
Spiritual Practices: Wild rice harvests were accompanied by ceremonies and prayers to honor the spirit of the water and the rice.
Kuna People (Panama)
Keystone Species Role: Managed mangrove forests and coral reefs, protecting coastal biodiversity. Preserved nursery habitats for many species.
Species Protected: Fish, crabs, seabirds, and corals.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals involving songs and offerings to coastal spirits ensured the health of marine ecosystems. They have spiritual reverence for the coral reef, with temporary bans on fishing being acts of respect for marine spirits to allow replenishment.
Lepcha People (Sikkim, India)
Keystone Species Role: Protected sacred forests and mountain watersheds.
Species Protected: Red pandas, hornbills, and diverse plant and insect species.
Spiritual Practices: Sacred groves were sites for annual festivals and prayers to mountain deities, safeguarding these ecosystems.
Tlingit People (Alaska)
Keystone Species Role: Harvested herring eggs sustainably, preserving herring populations crucial for marine food webs.
Species Protected: Herring, seals, seabirds, and whales who rely on this balance.
Spiritual Practices: Harvesting rituals and songs were conducted to honor marine spirits and ensure ecological balance.
Quechua/Inca People (Andes)
Keystone Species Role: Built terraces to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil fertility in high altitude ecosystems
Species Protected: Llamas, alpacas, condors, and high-altitude crops.
Spiritual Practices: Terraces were seen as gifts to Pachamama (Mother Earth). The Incas performed rituals to bless the soil and maintain its fertility, viewing their engineering as an act of spiritual gratitude. Rituals of gratitude to Pachamama who grants fertility by doing libations and making offerings of coca leaves and chicha (a traditional drink). Also important are the mountain spirits (apu) as well as local deities (wak'a).
Dayak People (Borneo, Indonesia)
Keystone Species Role: Cultivated forest gardens with agroforestry techniques ensuring biodiversity in deforested regions.
Species Protected: Orangutans, hornbills, and unique insect species.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals involve prayers and ceremonies to honor the spirit of the living forest and departed ancestors. Their Indigenous religion is Kaharingan, a form of animism.
Threats: from logging companies, which are harvesting trees at an unsustainable rate. This is leading to the loss of their traditional farming lands and hunting grounds.
Yakut People (Siberia)
Keystone Species Role: Reindeer herding practices maintained tundra ecosystems supporting Arctic biodiversity under harsh conditions.
Species Protected: Reindeer, wolves, arctic foxes, and tundra vegetation.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals included offerings and songs to the spirits of the tundra and reindeer.
Hmong Farmers (Southeast Asia)
Keystone Species Role: Practiced intercropping to support biodiversity in mountain regions and prevent collapse due to monocropping.
Species Protected: Pollinators, birds, and small mammals.
Spiritual Practices: Seasonal agricultural ceremonies honored the spirits of the land and ensured fertility. The Hmong world is inhabited by a variety of natural, ancestral, and supernatural spirits or gods and their shamans are chosen by the spirit.
Zulu Communities (South Africa)
Keystone Species Role: Protected sacred rivers and wetlands that ensures wellbeing of mega-herbivore Hippo.
Species Protected: Hippos, crocodiles, fish, and aquatic plants.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals involving offerings and prayers at rivers maintained their sanctity and ecological health.
Chinook People (Pacific Northwest)
Keystone Species Role: Managed root gardens and camas prairies to sustain prairie ecosystems.
Species Protected: Pollinators, deer, and herbivores.
Spiritual Practices: First-harvest ceremonies for camas flowers reinforced respect and reciprocity with nature.
Polynesian Navigators (Pacific Islands)
Keystone Species Role: Guided by spiritual relationships with the ocean, they maintained sustainable marine ecosystems.
Species Protected: Fish, corals, and marine life.
Spiritual Practices: Polynesian tribes viewed the ocean as a spiritual entity, guided by deities and ancestors. Navigators communicated with the sea’s spirits, dolphins and sea birds through rituals, chants, offerings, and deep intuitive observation.
Barasana and Makuna Peoples (Amazon Rainforest, Colombia)
Keystone Species Role: Cultivated cassava and managed river systems to support biodiversity.
Species Protected: Fish, turtles, and riverine ecosystems.
Spiritual Practices: Viewed rivers as the sacred veins of the Earth; rituals involved offerings and storytelling to honor water spirits.
Penan People (Borneo)
Keystone Species Role: Practiced nomadic lifestyles that supported rainforest regeneration.
Species Protected: Hornbills, gibbons, and diverse flora.
Spiritual Practices: Their cultural myths and rituals expressed reverence for the forest as a living, sacred entity.
Waorani People (Ecuador)
Keystone Species Role: Protected large tracts of rainforest through sustainable hunting and agriculture.
Species Protected: Jaguars, peccaries, and medicinal plants.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals included communal singing and offerings to the spirits of hunted animals, thanking them for their sacrifice.
Inuit Communities (Arctic Region)
Keystone Species Role: Managed seal and whale populations sustainably, ensuring balance in marine ecosystems.
Species Protected: Seals, whales, polar bears, and fish.
Spiritual Practices: Rituals honored the spirits of hunted animals, with ceremonies emphasizing gratitude and respect.
Yawanawá People (Brazil)
Keystone Species Role: Restored degraded rainforest areas using traditional planting techniques.
Species Protected: Medicinal plants, macaws, and endangered species.
Spiritual Practices: Shamanic rituals and the use of sacred plant medicines guided their restoration practices.
Aztec Civilization (Mexico)
Keystone Species Role: Practiced chinampa agriculture, creating artificial islands that supported wetland biodiversity.
Species Protected: Fish, amphibians, aquatic plants, and birds in the Valley of Mexico.
Spiritual Practices: The Aztecs believed in Gods of water, earth, and agriculture, treating the chinampas as sacred spaces harmonizing these forces. The canals and gardens were imbued with spiritual significance, ensuring they honored the balance between land and water. Performed rituals to Tlaloc, the rain god, and other deities, ensuring agricultural success and ecological balance.
Ayahuasca Practices (Amazon Rainforest - Various Tribes)
Keystone Species Role: Sustained the biodiversity of medicinal plants through careful cultivation and use.
Species Protected: Medicinal plants and associated fauna.
Spiritual Practices: Shamanic rituals involving ayahuasca communicated with the spirits of the forest for healing and guidance.
Australian Aboriginal Peoples
Keystone Species Role: Guided sustainable land use and resource management through spiritual laws and stories.
Species Protected: Kangaroos, dingoes, and diverse flora and fauna.
Spiritual Practices: Dreamtime stories conveyed the interconnectedness of life, guiding ceremonies and daily practices.
Mayan Peoples and their Calendar Practices (Mesoamerica)
Keystone Species Role: Aligned agricultural practices with natural cycles to sustain ecosystems.
Species Protected: Pollinators, maize, and companion crops.
Spiritual Practices: Timekeeping was a sacred act honoring celestial and ecological rhythms, fostering harmony.
Navajo (Diné) Sand Painting, North America
Keystone Species Role: Integrated spiritual and ecological practices for healing and balance.
Species Protected: Local plants, animals, and soil microbes.
Spiritual Practices: Sand paintings were created as visual prayers to invite spiritual energy into healing rituals.
Mossi People & Zai Agricultural Pits (West Africa)
Keystone Species Role: Revitalized degraded lands and supported ecosystems through water retention techniques.
Species Protected: Crops, pollinators, and small mammals.
Spiritual Practices: This technique reflects a deep spiritual connection to the earth, with rituals often accompanying soil preparation to invite rain and fertility spirits to collaborate with farmers in nurturing the land.
Examples of Architectural brilliance
Inuit (Arctic)
Igloo Construction: Igloos were more than shelters; they were seen as sanctuaries in harmony with the Arctic’s spirits, designed to respect the cold and snow's living essence.
Djenné (Mali, Africa)
Mud-Brick Cities: The architecture of Djenné incorporated sacred geometry and rituals to ensure alignment with the spirits of the land and ancestors.
Khasi and Jaintia tribes (Meghalaya, India)
Bamboo Suspension Bridges: Growing living root bridges required decades of patience and care, reflecting a spiritual partnership with trees seen as living beings.
Timbisha Shoshone
Desert Living: The tribe's survival in Death Valley hinged on rituals to honor the spirits of water and desert plants, seen as collaborators in maintaining life.
In the mid 1950s, development strategists unfortunately viewed traditional Indigenous knowledge (TEK) systems as inefficient, inferior, and an obstacle to development. Now Indigenous knowledge systems are increasingly seen as especially pivotal in discussions of ecological crisis. Most visionary thinkers would agree that to avoid total collapse, an interdisciplinary whole systems approach at local scales is necessary. Indigenous TEK is the original form of systems thinking, addressing phenomena across biological, physical, cultural, and spiritual realms. Scientists, policymakers, governments and others agree: TEK is rooted in living rightly on Earth, offering an innovative perspective on systemic resilience.